1. Address the assignment. This is the first rule for any assignment in any class. No paper, no matter how well written, can earn a grade – any grade – if it does not cover the material described in the assignment. Failure to address the assignment will earn you an automatic 0. Failure to address a major component of the assignment will earn a significant deduction.
  2. Summarize only enough to introduce your material or make smooth transitions. You should spend the body of your paper analyzing your source material, not merely rehashing biographical information or summarizing others’ analyses as if they were your own. If you do summarize, you must give credit to the author(s) whose ideas you use. Whether you quote directly or paraphrase (put another’s thoughts into your own words) you need to give credit by citing them as your source. (See”you must cite your sources” below).
  3. Figure out WHO did WHAT. Music history like any other kind of history has ACTORS. “Russia had nationalism” is a weak formulation. First of all, you are speaking of the Russians themselves – the people, not the geographic entity. What is more, you are probably speaking of Russian composers rather than all Russians. If what you mean is: “Some Russian composers of the nineteenth century explored ways of expressing their sense of Russian identity and patriotism through their music thereby contributing to what we call ‘musical nationalism,’” then say so. Differentiate between people and place, and find active verbs to recount what those people did.
  4. Because history has actors, avoid weak or passive constructions. Example: “Musicology was created by the Germans” uses the passive voice. Emphasize the contribution of those individuals or groups who have imagined, pioneered, struggled, or created by using the active voice. For example: “The Germans created musicology.” Students frequently use passive voice and/or verbs of being rather than active verbs to (attempt to) mask their confusion about WHO did WHAT. Demonstrate that you know the answers to these important questions by boldly stating the answers. If you are able to figure out WHO did WHAT and state it clearly, you will infuse your prose with clarity and energy. Active voice formulations invest your paper with vibrancy and meaning.
  5. Boldly state your assertions. Do not qualify or soften your ideas with “I think” or “I believe” unless you are asked to write an opinion paper. If you do not know whether something you are writing is correct or arguable but supportable, either investigate it further and find the answer, or leave it out. Avoid the first person whether singular (I) or plural (we). Use the more authoritative third person omniscient instead.
  6. Avoid speculation. To “do” history means to argue from evidence. Sometimes the historical record is sketchy, and we have to postulate without the convenience of having enough evidence to create a complete picture. However, much of the time, we have sufficient evidence to reach supportable conclusions. Do not waste space in your paper by taking a speculative flight of fancy. Stay grounded in your source material, and you will have plenty of evidence to back up any well-thought-out claim.
  7. Avoid making value judgments. It is not your job to decide whether another society’s (or individual’s) ideas, customs, actions, or compositions were “good” or “bad.” It is not your job to judge the sources you read and use for your evidence. You will have evaluated their usefulness and reliability before including them in your project. Every once in awhile I have a student who tells me (in a paper) that a source was “very helpful in helping me understand this interesting time period.” This value judgment of the source tells me nothing either about the source or about the student’s understanding of that source. Whether or not a source interests you is not the point. Your job is to analyze it, to tease out what you can that will deepen your understanding of the topic, and to share that understanding through writing.
  8. Avoid global/universal statements like: “Throughout history...” and “From time immemorial…” They are too broad, too all-encompassing for you to support with evidence.

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